Each participant produced 18 Mandarin disyllabic words which contained six stop consonants /p, pʰ, t, tʰ, k, kʰ/ each followed by three vowels /a, i, u/ at the word-initial position in the first syllable. These two factors, among other known factors, contribute to the observed pattern of short voiced closures and long preceding vowel duration, and, vice versa, long voiceless closures and short preceding vowel duration.This study compared the temporal measurements of stop consonants in 29 three- to six-year-old Mandarin-speaking children and 12 Mandarin-speaking adults. In particular, I argue that a delayed closure onset allows for enough tongue root advancement (known to facilitate voicing during closure) to be implemented during the production of the vowel in anticipation of the stop closure.įurthermore, glottal spreading typical of voiceless stops also can affect the timing of closure by anticipating the achievement of closure. Ultrasound tongue imaging and electroglottographic data of Italian and Polish further show that the timing of the closure onset of voiced and voiced stops depends on articulatory factors related to the implementation of voicelessness and voicing. Within this temporally stable interval, the timing of the closure onset (the VC boundary) determines the duration of both the vowel and the stop closure. The release-to-release interval has similar duration in words with a voiceless C2 and those with a voiced C2. The acoustic temporal relations of consonants and vowels observed in disyllabic (CV́CV) words of Italian, Polish, and English suggest that the duration of the interval between the release of the two stops is not affected by the voicing of the second stop. The results indicate that the voicing effect is the product of a mechanism of compensation between the duration of the vowel and that of the following stop closure. In this work, I draw from acoustic and articulatory data of Italian, Polish, and English and offer an overarching account of which aspects of the production of voiceless vs voiced stops, and vowel/consonant sequences in general, contribute to the emergence of the voicing effect. While the presence of this effect is cross-linguistically widespread, less is known about the source(s) of this phenomenon and competing accounts have been proposed over the decades. This dissertation focusses on the so-called “voicing effect,” by which vowels tend to be shorter when followed by voiceless stops and to be longer when followed by voiced stops, as exemplified by the English word pair bat vs bad. E An informal analysis of number of speakers per phonetic study by year and endangerment status.D Gesture onset timing of voiceless and voiced stops in Italian and Polish.C Cross-linguistic comparison of the voicing effect in English, Italian, and Polish.B Bayesian meta-analysis of the voicing effect in English.A.3 Comparing tongue root position in voiceless and voiced stops.A Assessing mid-sagittal tongue contours in polar coordinates using generalised additive (mixed) models.8.3 Embracing variation and accepting uncertainty.8.1.2 Diachrony, production, and perception.7.3 Wavegram GAM analysis of vowels followed by voiceless vs voiced stops.7 Modelling electroglottographic data with wavegrams and generalised additive mixed models.6.4.2 Estimates of tongue root displacement.6.4.1 Voicing, tongue root position and vowel duration.6.3.4 Tongue root position during V1 as a function of V1 duration.6.3.3 Correlation between tongue root position and V1 duration.6.3.1 Tongue root position at C2 closure onset.6.2.5 Data processing and statistical analysis.6 Longer vowel duration correlates with greater tongue root displacement: Acoustic and articulatory data from Italian and Polish.5.1.1 A gestural account of the voicing effect.5 Temporal (in)stability in English monosyllabic and disyllabic words: Insights on the effect of voicing on vowel duration.4.6 Socio-linguistic information of participants.4.4.1 Voicing effect in Italian and Polish.4.3.5 Release-to-release interval duration.4 An exploratory study of voicing-related differences in vowel duration as compensatory temporal adjustment in Italian and Polish.3.3.3 Where we stand and where we are heading.3.3.1 “With great power comes great replicability”.3.2 Compensatory aspects of the effect of voicing on vowel duration in English (Study II).3.1.2 Ultrasound tongue imaging and electroglottography.3.1 Exploratory study of the voicing effect in Italian and Polish (Study I).1.4 On the phonologisation of the voicing effect.1.3 The voicing effect and other phonological and phonetic factors.1.2 Voicing as a physical property and as a linguistic category.
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